Quinoa biomass production capacity and soil nutrient deficiencies in pastures, tree plantations and native forests in the Andean Highlands of Southern Ecuador
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Resumen
In the high Andes of Ecuador, although expanding agricultural practices and overgrazing have had negative impacts on soil fertility, few investigations have been conducted to identify which practices are most likely to reduce fertility. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) was grown in soils from native forests, Nf; pastures, Pa; Eucalyptus globulus Labill. plantations, Eg; and Pinus patula Schlecht. plantations, Pp. A bioassay study was conducted using a randomized block design with control (C), ammonium nitrate (N), triple superphosphate (P), and combined N and P (N+P) fertilizer treatments. On soils from Pp, quinoa mortality was 100% in N, 88% in C, 63% in N+P and 0% in P; P enhanced growth the most; quinoa biomass attained only 0.1 g/pot and had a P content of 0.7 mg/pot. N+P enhanced quinoa growth the most on soils from Nf, Pa and Eg. Here, quinoa biomass (g/pot) averaged 0.1 in C, 0.4 in N, 1.6 in P and 7.2 in N+P; P content (mg/pot) averaged 0.9 in C, 0.6 in N, 12 in P and 38 in N+P. In all soils, PO4- was the principal limiting factor. K deficiencies and Al toxicity probably occurred only in Pp soils. This study suggests that the studied soils cannot support production of quinoa crops without additions of combined fertilizers containing P and K as the principal elements. Pp have the least fertile soils, presumably resulting from a longer history of use after pasturing in addition to the pine effect itself.
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Allen, M. F. 1991. The ecology of mycorrhizae. Cambridge.
Allen, S. 1989. Analysis of vegetation and other organic materials. En: Chemical analysis of ecological materials. Allen, D. (Ed.). Blackwell, Oxford, págs. 46-61.
Blevins, D.G. 1994. Uptake, translocation, and function of essential mineral elements in crop plants. En: Physiology and determination of crop yield. Boote, K. J., J. M. Bennett, T. R. Sinclair y G. M. Paulsen (Eds.). Madison, EE.UU., págs. 259-275.
Bretón, V. 2008. From agrarian reform to ethnodevelopment in the highlands of Ecuador. Journal of Agrarian Change, 8: 583–617. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0366.2008.00181.x
Buytaert, W., J. Deckers y G. Wyseure. 2006. Description and classification of nonallophanic Andosols in south Ecuadorian alpine grasslands (páramo). Geomorphology, 73: 207-221. doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.06.012
Celleri, R., P. Willems, W. Buytaert y J. Feyen. 2007. Space-time rainfall variability in the Paute basin, Ecuadorian Andes. Hydrological Processes, 21: 3316–3327. doi: 10.1002/hyp.6575
Chacón, G., D. Gagnon y D. Paré. 2009. Comparison of soil properties of native forests and Pinus patula plantations, and pastures in the Andean highlands of southern Ecuador: land-use history or recent vegetation effects? Soil Use and Management, 25: 427-433. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-2743.2009.00233.x
Chacón, G., D. Gagnon y D. Paré. 2015. Soil agricultural potential in four common Andean land use types in the Highlands of Southern Ecuador as revealed by a corn bioassay. Agricultural Sciences, 6(10): 1129-1140. doi: 10.4236/as.2015.610108
Cochrane, T. T. y P. A. Sanchez. 1982. Land resources, soils and their management in the Amazon region: a state of knowledge report. En: Proceedings of the international conference on Amazonian agriculture and land-use research. S. Hecht (Ed). Cali, Colombia, CIAT series 03E-3(82):137-209.
Crous, J. W., A. R. Morris y M. C. Scholes. 2011. Changes in topsoil, standing litter and tree nutrient content of a Pinus patula plantation after phosphorus and potassium fertilization. European Journal of Forest Research, 130: 277-292. doi: 10.1007/s10342-010-0430-z
Davidson, R., D. Gagnon e Y. Mauffette. 1999. Growth and mineral nutrition of the native trees Pollalesta discolor and the N-fixing Inga densiflora in relation to the soil properties of a degraded volcanic soil of the Ecuadorian Amazon. Plant and Soil, 208: 135-147. doi: 10.1023/A:1004549216198
Espinosa, J. 1992: Phosphorus diagnosis and recommendations in volcanic ash soils. PDSS Proceedings. TropSoils Bulletin, 92: 109-115.
Ewel, J. J., M. J. Mazzarino y C. W. Berish. 1991. Tropical soil fertility changes under monocultures and successional communities of different structure. Ecological Applications, 1: 289-302. doi: 10.2307/1941758
Farley, K. A. y E. F. Kelly. 2004. Effects of afforestation of a páramo grassland on soil nutrient status. Forest Ecology and Management, 195: 281–290. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2003.12.015
Farley, K. A., L. L. Bremer, C. P. Harden y J. Hartsig. 2012. Changes in carbon storage under alternative land uses in biodiverse Andean grasslands: implications for payment for ecosystem services. Conservation Letters 0: 1–7. doi/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00267.x
Finck, A. 1982. Fertilizers and fertilization: introduction and practical guide to crop fertilization. Verlag Chemie, Weinheim, Germany.
Fonte, S. J, S. J. Vanek, P. Oyarzun, S. Parsa, D. C. Quintero, I. M. Rao y P. Lavelle. 2012. Pathways to agroecological intensification of soil fertility management by smallholder farmers in the Andean Highlands. En: Advances in Agronomy. D. L. Sparks, (Ed.). Vol. 116, Burlington: Academic Press, págs. 125-184.
Grimshaw, H. M. 1989. Analysis of soil. En: Chemical analysis of ecological materials. S. E. Allen y A. Stewart, (Eds.). Blackwell, Oxford, págs. 7-45.
Harden, C. P., J. Hartsig, K. A. Farley, J. Lee y L. L. Bremer. 2013. Effects of land-use change on water in Andean páramo grassland soils. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 103: 375-384. doi: 10.1080/00045608.2013.754655
Hendershot, W. H., H. Lalande y M. Duquette. 1993. Soil reaction and exchangeable acidity. En: Soil sampling and methods of analysis. Carter, M. R. (Ed.). Lewis Publishers, EE.UU., págs. 141-145.
IUSS Working Group WRB. 2015. World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, update 2015 International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. World Soil Resources Reports No. 106. FAO, Rome.
James, L.E.A. 2009. Chapter 1: Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.): Composition, chemistry, nutritional, and functional properties. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, 58: 1-31. doi: 10.1016/S1043-4526(09)58001-1
Jampel, C. 2016. Cattle-based livelihoods, changes in the taskscape, and human–bear conflict in the Ecuadorian Andes. Geoforum, 69: 84-93. doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.01.001
Jenny, H. 1950. Causes of the high nitrogen and organic matter content of certain tropical forest soils. Soil Science, 69: 63-69. doi: 10.1097/00010694-195001000-00005
López, M. A. y M. González. 1987. Efecto de dos fuentes de calcio sobre la fertilidad de tres suelos ácidos de Costa Rica. Agronomía Costarricense, 11: 1-15.
Maynard, D. G. y Y. P. Kalra. 1993: Nitrate and exchangeable ammonium nitrogen. En: Soil sampling and methods of analysis. Carter, M. R. (Ed). Lewis Publishers, EE.UU., págs. 25-38.
McKeague, J. A. 1978. Manuel de méthodes d'échantillonage et d'analyse des sols. Comité Canadien de Pédologie, Ottawa, Canada.
Montagnini, F. y F. Sancho. 1994. Net nitrogen mineralization in soils under six indigenous tree species, an abandoned pasture and a secondary forest in the Atlantic lowlands of Costa Rica. Plant and Soil, 162: 117-124. doi: 10.1007/BF01416097
Mujica, A. 1994. Esquema de la resistencia duradera de la quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd). Memorias del primer taller sobre resistencia duradera en cultivos alto andinos de Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador y Perú, 30: 105-111.
Munevar, F. y A. G. Wollum. 1977. Effects of the addition of phosphorus and inorganic nitrogen on carbon and nitrogen mineralization in Andepts from Colombia. Soil Science Society of American Journal, 41: 540-545. doi: 10.2136/sssaj1977.03615995004100030023x
Nanzyo, M., R. Dahlgren y S. Shoji. 1993. Chemical characteristics of volcanic ash soils. En: Volcanic ash soils: genesis, properties and utilization. Shoji, S., Nanzyo, M. y Dahlgren, R. (Eds). Elsevier, Amsterdam, págs. 145-187.
Oades, J. M., G. P. Guillman y G. Uehara. 1989. Interactions of soil organic matter and variable-charge clays. En: Dynamics of soil organic matter in tropical ecosystems. Coleman, D. C., Oades, J. M. y Uehara, G. (Eds). NifTAL Project. Honolulu, págs. 69-95.
Ochoa?Tocachi, B. F., W. Buytaert, B. De Bièvre, R. Célleri, P. Crespo, M. Villacís, C. A. Llerena, L. Acosta, M. Villazón, M. Guallpa, J. Gil?Ríos, P. Fuentes, D. Olaya, P. Viñas, G. Rojas y S. Arias. 2016. Impacts of land use on the hydrological response of tropical Andean catchments. Hydrological Processes, doi: 10.1002/hyp.10980
Oskarsson, H., A. Sigurgeirsson, y K. Raulund-Rasmussen. 2006. Survival, growth, and nutrition of tree seedlings fertilized at planting on Andisol soils in Iceland: Six-year results. Forest Ecology and Management, 229: 88-97. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2006.03.018
Paniagua, A. M., J. Mazzarino, D. Kass, L. Szott y C. Fernandez. 1995. Soil phosphorus fractions under five tropical agro-ecosystems on a volcanic soil. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 33: 311-320. doi: 10.1071/SR9950311
Potthast, K., U. Hamer, y F. Makeschin. 2012. In an Ecuadorian pasture soil the growth of Setaria sphacelata, but not of soil microorganisms, is co-limited by N and P. Applied Soil Ecology, 62: 103-114. doi: 10.1016/j.apsoil.2012.08.003
Reinbott, T. M. y D. G. Blevins. 1991. Phosphate interaction with uptake and leaf concentration of magnesium, calcium, and potassium in winter wheat seedlings. Agronomy Journal, 83: 1043-1046. doi: 10.2134/agronj1991.00021962008300060021x
Risi, J. C., y N. W. Galwey. 1989. The pattern of genetic diversity in the Andean grain crop quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd). I. Associations between characteristics. Euphytica, 41: 147-162. doi: 10.1007/BF00022424
SAS Institute Inc. 2008. SAS/STAT® 9.2 User's Guide. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc.
Shoji, S., M. Nanzyo, y R. Dahlgren. 1993. Productivity and utilization of volcanic ash soils. En: Volcanic ash soils: genesis, properties and utilization. Shoji, S. Nanzyo, M., y Dahlgreen, R. (Eds). Elsevier, págs. 209-251.
Smethurst, P. J. 2010. Forest fertilization: trends in knowledge and practice compared to agriculture. Plant and Soil 335: 83-100. doi: 10.1007/s11104-010-0316-3
Taylor, B. R. D. Parkinson y W. F. J. Parsons. 1989. Nitrogen and lignin content as predictors of litter decay rates: a microcosm test. Ecology, 70: 97-104. doi: 10.2307/1938416
Vitousek, P. M., S. Porder, B. Z. Houlton y O. A. Chadwick. 2010. Terrestrial phosphorus limitation: mechanisms, implications, and nitrogen–phosphorus interactions. Ecological applications, 20: 5-15. doi: 10.1890/08-0127.1
Wild, A. 1989: Mineral nutrients in tropical ecosystems: a soil scientist's view. En: Mineral nutrients in tropical forest and savanna ecosystems. Proctor, J. (Ed.). British Ecological Society, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, págs. 441-456.
Allen, S. 1989. Analysis of vegetation and other organic materials. En: Chemical analysis of ecological materials. Allen, D. (Ed.). Blackwell, Oxford, págs. 46-61.
Blevins, D.G. 1994. Uptake, translocation, and function of essential mineral elements in crop plants. En: Physiology and determination of crop yield. Boote, K. J., J. M. Bennett, T. R. Sinclair y G. M. Paulsen (Eds.). Madison, EE.UU., págs. 259-275.
Bretón, V. 2008. From agrarian reform to ethnodevelopment in the highlands of Ecuador. Journal of Agrarian Change, 8: 583–617. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0366.2008.00181.x
Buytaert, W., J. Deckers y G. Wyseure. 2006. Description and classification of nonallophanic Andosols in south Ecuadorian alpine grasslands (páramo). Geomorphology, 73: 207-221. doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.06.012
Celleri, R., P. Willems, W. Buytaert y J. Feyen. 2007. Space-time rainfall variability in the Paute basin, Ecuadorian Andes. Hydrological Processes, 21: 3316–3327. doi: 10.1002/hyp.6575
Chacón, G., D. Gagnon y D. Paré. 2009. Comparison of soil properties of native forests and Pinus patula plantations, and pastures in the Andean highlands of southern Ecuador: land-use history or recent vegetation effects? Soil Use and Management, 25: 427-433. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-2743.2009.00233.x
Chacón, G., D. Gagnon y D. Paré. 2015. Soil agricultural potential in four common Andean land use types in the Highlands of Southern Ecuador as revealed by a corn bioassay. Agricultural Sciences, 6(10): 1129-1140. doi: 10.4236/as.2015.610108
Cochrane, T. T. y P. A. Sanchez. 1982. Land resources, soils and their management in the Amazon region: a state of knowledge report. En: Proceedings of the international conference on Amazonian agriculture and land-use research. S. Hecht (Ed). Cali, Colombia, CIAT series 03E-3(82):137-209.
Crous, J. W., A. R. Morris y M. C. Scholes. 2011. Changes in topsoil, standing litter and tree nutrient content of a Pinus patula plantation after phosphorus and potassium fertilization. European Journal of Forest Research, 130: 277-292. doi: 10.1007/s10342-010-0430-z
Davidson, R., D. Gagnon e Y. Mauffette. 1999. Growth and mineral nutrition of the native trees Pollalesta discolor and the N-fixing Inga densiflora in relation to the soil properties of a degraded volcanic soil of the Ecuadorian Amazon. Plant and Soil, 208: 135-147. doi: 10.1023/A:1004549216198
Espinosa, J. 1992: Phosphorus diagnosis and recommendations in volcanic ash soils. PDSS Proceedings. TropSoils Bulletin, 92: 109-115.
Ewel, J. J., M. J. Mazzarino y C. W. Berish. 1991. Tropical soil fertility changes under monocultures and successional communities of different structure. Ecological Applications, 1: 289-302. doi: 10.2307/1941758
Farley, K. A. y E. F. Kelly. 2004. Effects of afforestation of a páramo grassland on soil nutrient status. Forest Ecology and Management, 195: 281–290. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2003.12.015
Farley, K. A., L. L. Bremer, C. P. Harden y J. Hartsig. 2012. Changes in carbon storage under alternative land uses in biodiverse Andean grasslands: implications for payment for ecosystem services. Conservation Letters 0: 1–7. doi/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00267.x
Finck, A. 1982. Fertilizers and fertilization: introduction and practical guide to crop fertilization. Verlag Chemie, Weinheim, Germany.
Fonte, S. J, S. J. Vanek, P. Oyarzun, S. Parsa, D. C. Quintero, I. M. Rao y P. Lavelle. 2012. Pathways to agroecological intensification of soil fertility management by smallholder farmers in the Andean Highlands. En: Advances in Agronomy. D. L. Sparks, (Ed.). Vol. 116, Burlington: Academic Press, págs. 125-184.
Grimshaw, H. M. 1989. Analysis of soil. En: Chemical analysis of ecological materials. S. E. Allen y A. Stewart, (Eds.). Blackwell, Oxford, págs. 7-45.
Harden, C. P., J. Hartsig, K. A. Farley, J. Lee y L. L. Bremer. 2013. Effects of land-use change on water in Andean páramo grassland soils. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 103: 375-384. doi: 10.1080/00045608.2013.754655
Hendershot, W. H., H. Lalande y M. Duquette. 1993. Soil reaction and exchangeable acidity. En: Soil sampling and methods of analysis. Carter, M. R. (Ed.). Lewis Publishers, EE.UU., págs. 141-145.
IUSS Working Group WRB. 2015. World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, update 2015 International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. World Soil Resources Reports No. 106. FAO, Rome.
James, L.E.A. 2009. Chapter 1: Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.): Composition, chemistry, nutritional, and functional properties. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research, 58: 1-31. doi: 10.1016/S1043-4526(09)58001-1
Jampel, C. 2016. Cattle-based livelihoods, changes in the taskscape, and human–bear conflict in the Ecuadorian Andes. Geoforum, 69: 84-93. doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.01.001
Jenny, H. 1950. Causes of the high nitrogen and organic matter content of certain tropical forest soils. Soil Science, 69: 63-69. doi: 10.1097/00010694-195001000-00005
López, M. A. y M. González. 1987. Efecto de dos fuentes de calcio sobre la fertilidad de tres suelos ácidos de Costa Rica. Agronomía Costarricense, 11: 1-15.
Maynard, D. G. y Y. P. Kalra. 1993: Nitrate and exchangeable ammonium nitrogen. En: Soil sampling and methods of analysis. Carter, M. R. (Ed). Lewis Publishers, EE.UU., págs. 25-38.
McKeague, J. A. 1978. Manuel de méthodes d'échantillonage et d'analyse des sols. Comité Canadien de Pédologie, Ottawa, Canada.
Montagnini, F. y F. Sancho. 1994. Net nitrogen mineralization in soils under six indigenous tree species, an abandoned pasture and a secondary forest in the Atlantic lowlands of Costa Rica. Plant and Soil, 162: 117-124. doi: 10.1007/BF01416097
Mujica, A. 1994. Esquema de la resistencia duradera de la quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd). Memorias del primer taller sobre resistencia duradera en cultivos alto andinos de Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador y Perú, 30: 105-111.
Munevar, F. y A. G. Wollum. 1977. Effects of the addition of phosphorus and inorganic nitrogen on carbon and nitrogen mineralization in Andepts from Colombia. Soil Science Society of American Journal, 41: 540-545. doi: 10.2136/sssaj1977.03615995004100030023x
Nanzyo, M., R. Dahlgren y S. Shoji. 1993. Chemical characteristics of volcanic ash soils. En: Volcanic ash soils: genesis, properties and utilization. Shoji, S., Nanzyo, M. y Dahlgren, R. (Eds). Elsevier, Amsterdam, págs. 145-187.
Oades, J. M., G. P. Guillman y G. Uehara. 1989. Interactions of soil organic matter and variable-charge clays. En: Dynamics of soil organic matter in tropical ecosystems. Coleman, D. C., Oades, J. M. y Uehara, G. (Eds). NifTAL Project. Honolulu, págs. 69-95.
Ochoa?Tocachi, B. F., W. Buytaert, B. De Bièvre, R. Célleri, P. Crespo, M. Villacís, C. A. Llerena, L. Acosta, M. Villazón, M. Guallpa, J. Gil?Ríos, P. Fuentes, D. Olaya, P. Viñas, G. Rojas y S. Arias. 2016. Impacts of land use on the hydrological response of tropical Andean catchments. Hydrological Processes, doi: 10.1002/hyp.10980
Oskarsson, H., A. Sigurgeirsson, y K. Raulund-Rasmussen. 2006. Survival, growth, and nutrition of tree seedlings fertilized at planting on Andisol soils in Iceland: Six-year results. Forest Ecology and Management, 229: 88-97. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2006.03.018
Paniagua, A. M., J. Mazzarino, D. Kass, L. Szott y C. Fernandez. 1995. Soil phosphorus fractions under five tropical agro-ecosystems on a volcanic soil. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 33: 311-320. doi: 10.1071/SR9950311
Potthast, K., U. Hamer, y F. Makeschin. 2012. In an Ecuadorian pasture soil the growth of Setaria sphacelata, but not of soil microorganisms, is co-limited by N and P. Applied Soil Ecology, 62: 103-114. doi: 10.1016/j.apsoil.2012.08.003
Reinbott, T. M. y D. G. Blevins. 1991. Phosphate interaction with uptake and leaf concentration of magnesium, calcium, and potassium in winter wheat seedlings. Agronomy Journal, 83: 1043-1046. doi: 10.2134/agronj1991.00021962008300060021x
Risi, J. C., y N. W. Galwey. 1989. The pattern of genetic diversity in the Andean grain crop quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd). I. Associations between characteristics. Euphytica, 41: 147-162. doi: 10.1007/BF00022424
SAS Institute Inc. 2008. SAS/STAT® 9.2 User's Guide. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc.
Shoji, S., M. Nanzyo, y R. Dahlgren. 1993. Productivity and utilization of volcanic ash soils. En: Volcanic ash soils: genesis, properties and utilization. Shoji, S. Nanzyo, M., y Dahlgreen, R. (Eds). Elsevier, págs. 209-251.
Smethurst, P. J. 2010. Forest fertilization: trends in knowledge and practice compared to agriculture. Plant and Soil 335: 83-100. doi: 10.1007/s11104-010-0316-3
Taylor, B. R. D. Parkinson y W. F. J. Parsons. 1989. Nitrogen and lignin content as predictors of litter decay rates: a microcosm test. Ecology, 70: 97-104. doi: 10.2307/1938416
Vitousek, P. M., S. Porder, B. Z. Houlton y O. A. Chadwick. 2010. Terrestrial phosphorus limitation: mechanisms, implications, and nitrogen–phosphorus interactions. Ecological applications, 20: 5-15. doi: 10.1890/08-0127.1
Wild, A. 1989: Mineral nutrients in tropical ecosystems: a soil scientist's view. En: Mineral nutrients in tropical forest and savanna ecosystems. Proctor, J. (Ed.). British Ecological Society, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, págs. 441-456.